NavalWarfare

Silent running (or ultra-quiet) is a stealth mode of operation for submarines

Silent running (or ultra-quiet) is a stealth mode of operation for submarines.

During silent running, the propellers have a characteristic RPM band in which no cavitation noise arises. Since this rotation speed is usually relatively low, the first electric submarines had special “silent running” engines designed for optimum performance at reduced speed.

Nuclear submarines can run even more quietly, at very low speeds only, by turning off active reactor cooling during silent running. The reactor is then only cooled by natural convection of the water.

The aim of silent running (a protocol that has been in use since the latter part of World War I, when hydrophones were invented to detect U-boats) is to evade discovery by passive sonar by eliminating superfluous noise: nonessential systems are shut down, as explained above speed is greatly reduced to minimize propeller noise and the crew is urged to rest and refrain from making any unnecessary sound.

As already explained (CLICK HERE to read the article) ‘Being “quiet” is more than not talking.

This article was edited because it contained sensitive information.

Stay tuned for additional updates if further details on this story had to come to light!

Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jonathan W. Hutto, Sr. / U.S. Navy

‘The Spruance-class destroyer sighted our periscope and decided to prosecute. We ran for a while, let them have some ASW training and then surfaced and went into port,’ James Clark, former US Navy Submarine Chief Petty Officer

The thirty-one Spruance-class destroyers were developed for the primary mission of anti-submarine warfare, including operations as an integral part of attack carrier forces.

Utilizing highly developed weapons systems (such as the AN/SQS-53B Hull Mounted Sonar and the AN/SQR-l9 (V) 3 Tactical Towed Array Sonar) the Spruance-class destroyers were designed to hunt down and destroy high speed submarines in all weather, but could also engage ships, aircraft, and shore targets. These multi-purpose combatants were also capable of providing naval gunfire support in conjunction with Marine amphibious operations worldwide.

Despite their capabilities, the US Navy retired the Spruance-class destroyers somewhat earlier than planned, decommissioning the last ship in 2005. Most Spruances were broken up or destroyed as targets (former USS Paul F. Foster (DD-964) now serves as a Self Defense Test Ship for experimental US Navy weapons and sensors). The class was succeeded as the main destroyer by the Arleigh Burke-class destroyer.

James Clark, former US Navy Submarine Chief Petty Officer, recalls what it’s like being “pinged” by the sonar of a Spruance-class destroyer on Quora;

‘I have been pinged once by a surface ship. We were entering port near dawn and our Officer of the Deck was doing his periscope sweeps before surfacing. He sighted a nearby ship and then announced they had launched a helo. We dove deep and went full ahead.

‘With fifteen minutes this weird sound started emanating in our ship. It’s not a ping. It sounds more a blue whale has decided to open up an EDM club and is showing off its sick new beats. It’s a wavering sound that goes up and down in pitch.

‘The surface ship was a Spruance-class destroyer. It had sighted our periscope and decided to prosecute. We ran for a while, let them have some ASW training and then surfaced and went into port.’

Clark concludes;

‘When I am saying pinged once, I am referring to hearing the SONAR through the hull. It could be heard on the mess decks over the TV burning a flick. The sonar operators heard plenty in sonar. Most of the time when we conducted PASSEX the SONAR was either passive only or the Active SONAR was far enough away that it could only be picked up by our sensors.’

Photo by Chief Journalist Alan J. Baribeau / U.S. Navy

‘When the Thanksgiving lunch meal was ready, a crew member knocked on my stateroom door to invite me to the meal. I walked to the door, turned the handle, and couldn’t open the door,’ Mark J. Munkacsy, former USS Boston fast-attack submarine weapons officer

The intricate machinery aboard a nuclear-powered submarine is complex: these boats in fact have complicated diving systems consisting of many ballast tanks, trimming tanks, auxiliary tanks, emergency tanks etc.
Many valves (connected with pressure tanks filled with compressed air, which is gathered and stored during the surface cruise) with many backup systems control all of the systems listed above.

During surface cruise the submarine is in a state which is called a positive buoyancy, because air fills the boat’s diving tanks.

When the dive is ordered, the upper vents of the ballast tanks are being opened when the dive is ordered. This causes the tanks to flood with water through the bottom openings. Now the submarine has either neutral or negative buoyancy – it dives and can cruise under the water’s surface.

Does a submarine’s inside diameter get visibly smaller on deep dives?

Mark J. Munkacsy, former weapons officer aboard the USS Boston (SSN 703) fast-attack submarine, tells an interesting story on Quora;

‘On Thanksgiving Day, 1981, the USS Boston got underway for sea trials after an extended period in the shipyard. After standing watch in the morning, I went to my stateroom to do some paperwork. While I sat there, the boat went down to test depth (the deepest it normally goes) as part of the sea trials test program. When the Thanksgiving lunch meal was ready, a crew member knocked on my stateroom door to invite me to the meal. I walked to the door, turned the handle, and couldn’t open the door.

‘It was wedged shut. As a result of some of the changes made while we were in the shipyard, as the hull had compressed the deck above my stateroom was unable to shift properly on its “floating” structure, which pressed on and distorted the frame of my stateroom door, wedging the door tight into the door frame.

‘After a brief consultation with the test director (talking to me from the other side of the door), we concluded that the door could be taken apart if I really needed to get out. Otherwise, we’d just wait until the test depth testing was completed and we came back shallow.

‘So, I sat there for a couple of hours. Laughing crew members offered to slide me turkey under the door (which wouldn’t have worked anyway since the door was wedged tight against the deck). As soon as we headed back toward more normal depths, the hull expanded, my door popped free of the door frame, and I was able to leave.’

Munkacsy concludes;

“Stateroom door repair” went onto the list of work items from sea trials.’

Photo by US Navy

‘The head cook would take sonar’s intel, relay it to the Old Man, and the two of them would discuss menus options! Seriously. Menus options. Spices.’ Richard Morris, former US Navy submariner

US Navy Culinary Specialists work as part of a team in kitchens, dining areas, living quarters and food service storerooms aboard ships and onshore bases. Culinary Specialist Submarines (CSS) have the opportunity to serve aboard submarines.

CSSs receive extensive training in cooking, baking, dining, and living area management.

CSSs are also able to improvise meals, sometimes in unconventional manner, as Richard Morris, former US Navy submariner, recalls on Quora;

‘The cooks and the sonar gang worked out a genius system, with the Old Man’s approval.

‘Whenever we were steaming at periscope depth or slipping on batteries—and not on ops—sonar would notify the head cook. The head cook in our case was a miracle of a man: Jim Banneck. The man could make anything out of nothing. Never came up short. Always wowed everyone on the boat. Rumor was, the Old Man pulled solid gold strings to get him transferred to his command when he was assigned as CO.

‘Jim would take sonar’s intel, relay it to the Old Man, and the two of them would discuss menus options! Seriously. Menus options. Spices.

‘On one occasion sonar notified Jim that we were passing through snapping shrimp. Jim called the Old Man, we surfaced, the cook crew scurried out on deck, scooped up buckets full of shrimp, and presented the crew with Shrimp Scampi, Shrimp Biscuits, Shrimp and Kelp Omlets, Shrimped Brioche, Shrimp Ceviche, Shrimp Lasagne—bearing in mind that this was a 66-person crew on a five meals per day rotation; so, the variety was much appreciated by all.’

He continues;

‘On another occasion we caught a tuna and assorted other edibles that fed us through seven rotations. That’s 35 meals. 35.

‘Jim was a magician. I’m glad I had the opportunity to work with him. As the NFG, I washed dishes, took care of stores, prepped, tried to keep the galley clean enough to satisfy our very, very scrupulous Chief Corpsman (medic), and did whatever Big Jim told me to do.

‘As a newbie in sonar, I learned to relish opportunities to be a bit player in the conspiratorial drama that would deliver us all from the hell of canned food.

‘When I evolved to the level of shipmate, dolphins proudly displayed, Jim and I would talk about his love for cooking, his hope for painting satisfaction on the faces of his shipmates, his understanding of what it meant to be part of something bigger than himself.’

Morris concludes;

‘Jim Banneck was a big man—a very big man.

‘See you on the other side, Big Man.’

Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Rex Nelson, Lt. Ed Early and Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Hana’lei Shimana / U.S. Navy

‘I didn’t think I would enjoy my XO tour. Turns out I loved it because you are in the middle of (and in control of) everything in the submarine’s operations!’ William Toti, former XO of USS Florida (SSBN-728)

Denzel Washington and Gene Hackman both give blistering performances in the now classic submarine film Crimson Tide, and the tension that crackles between them comes to an explosive head in the central “I cannot concur” scene, in which the two go shouty crackers at each other – and then, shockingly, what looks very much like a mutiny takes place.

As we all know Hackman plays the role of the USS Alabama submarine captain while Washington plays his new number two, the executive officer or “XO.”

The XO is the billet of the officer who is second-in-command. An XO is assigned to all ships, aviation squadrons, and shore units and installations, and is responsible to the captain for all ship’s work, drills, exercises, personnel organization, and the policing and inspection of the ship.

But what is the function of an XO in a submarine? Can a submarine captain function without an XO?

William Toti, US Navy Captain, (retired), former commodore, former CO and former XO of USS Florida (SSBN-728) Ohio-class SSBN who was involved in the making of the movie “Crimson Tide,” explains on Quora;

‘The Executive Officer (XO) of a submarine fills several roles:

• He is the second in command of the boat, and as such, the only other officer aboard who has gone through the submarine Prospective Commanding Officer course, and is therefore fully qualified for command should something happen to the Commanding Officer (CO)
• He is the second most experienced officer, so when the captain must take some rest in stressful tactical situations (the captain can’t be awake 24/7), he is able to assign the XO as “Command Duty Officer,” with authority to make some of the decisions normally reserved for the captain (for example, permission to proceed to periscope depth).
• He is the Fire Control Officer or Assistant Approach Officer during battlestations, whose responsibility it is to advise the captain when the “solution” is sufficient to conduct an attack on a ship, submarine, or land-based target.
• He is the ship’s Training Officer, responsible to the captain to make sure drills and training events are sufficient to ensure the crew is adequately trained.
• He is responsible to go to the scene of a casualty (fire, flooding, etc) to take charge at the scene while the captain remains in the Control Room, and to advise the captain on how things are progressing in the casualty. To that end, he should keep himself in good physical condition since he needs to be able to handle being in personal protective equipment for prolonged periods of time to fight a casualty. (Ship crews at sea can’t call the fire department— they ARE the fire department.)

• He is the officer responsible for ship administration (e.g. paperwork)
• He writes and executes the ship’s Plan of the Day on a daily basis.
• He is often the “bad cop” in engaging with the crew, allowing the captain to serve as “good cop.”
• There are also a whole host of informal, unofficial duties that the XO will have. Much like Spock on Star Trek, he is supposed to be the guy, along with the Chief of the Boat (senior enlisted person on the submarine), who “whispers” into the captain’s ear if he thinks the captain is about to make a bad decision. In that capacity, he is the most capable and trusted advisor to the captain.
• He should also, along with the COB, have his “fingers on the pulse of the crew” so he can advise the captain if something is amiss. I was involved in the making of the movie “Crimson Tide” when I was XO of the Trident submarine USS Florida (SSBN-728) Gold Crew, but I think the movie-makers took that factoid a little too far in the making of the movie.
• To answer the second question, everybody gets to go on leave sometime, including the XO, so yes, the submarine can function without an XO for short periods of time. When the XO is gone, the “Third Officer” (most senior department head) fills in for him. But we NEVER let the XO go on leave when the ship is deployed. (PS – when the CO is on leave, the XO fills in for the CO, but it’s rare that the commodore would ever let the ship get underway without the CO onboard. Only happens in emergencies.)

Toti concludes;

‘In other words, he is a very busy guy. I didn’t think I would enjoy my XO tour — I was hoping to merely endure it on the way to command. Turns out I loved it because you are in the middle of (and in control of) everything in the submarine’s operations!’

Photo by Hollywood Pictures

‘Once Sonar has found a potentially good surfacing spot, the boat will hover (station-keeping maneuver), then slowly rise until the top of the sail (fairwater) is resting against the ice,’ John Jones former US Navy Sturgeon class submarine Sonar Technician

On May 6, 1986, three US Navy Sturgeon class nuclear-powered attack submarines (USS Ray [SSN-653], homeported in Charleston, SC; USS Archerfish [SSN-678], homeported in Groton, CT; and USS Hawkbill [SSN-666], homeported in Pearl Harbor, HI) rendezvoused and surfaced together at the geographic North Pole. The event occurred while the submarines were participating in Arctic Ocean operations known as “ICEX 1-86”. The mission of the submarines was to collect scientific data and test submarine force readiness under arctic conditions without logistics base support. The operation included experiments to determine how torpedoes, sonar and other anti-submarine warfare gear operates in frigid temperatures, and involved locating underwater currents to determine where cracks in the ice may develop through which missiles can be launched without requiring a submarine to surface and expose its position. Newspapers reported Navy officials acknowledged that disclosure of the operation was intended to signal to the Soviets publicly that the US was boosting its attack submarine presence in the Arctic in response to heavier concentrations of Soviet subs there.

Is surfacing through the ice cap at the North Pole dangerous for submarines?

John Jones, former Sonar Technician (Submarines) 1st Class (STS1(SS)) at US Navy Submarine Force (1979–1988), recalls on Quora;

‘Only if you screw up and surface through very thick ice (or fail to break through), but even then, the most you’d get is damage to any topside fairings, and potentially, any GRP fixtures. During our historic North Pole mission in 1986, before reaching the Pole we’d surfaced several times prior, twice specifically to deal with Freon leaks we’d been dealing with before getting underway. Unfortunately, we were forced to leave before all of the leaks were found and fixed in order to meet our Mission Schedule Requirements (we were one of three Submarines working together). We kept a close eye on Freon levels, ventilating as required while we were still in open water transiting to the ice pack. Of course, once we made the transition from open ocean to under-ice operations, the problem became more serious, ultimately needing us to find a thin spot in the ice twice to Surface & Ventilate in order to remove the toxic levels of Freon that had built up.

‘During one surface, we drifted into thick ice at the last second and wound up with a lot of topside damage, but not to the point where it was severe enough to force us back into port. We were pretty well prepared, and the ice at the North Pole was only about 6″ thick. Remember that a boat searches first for thin ice (a Polynya) using Under-Ice Sonar (essentially a set of topside transducers that ping up and forward – instead of down) to surface through.’

He continues;

‘The ice at the Geographic North Pole isn’t always very thick, though if you look at the aerial photos below you can distinguish the heavy, thick pack ice from the relatively thin ice areas. The Polar Ice Pack is in constant motion; high winds and temperature fluctuations are always causing the ice to shift and break apart, causing open water areas (Polynyas) to form, which then rapidly freeze back over due to the extreme cold (as cold as -60°F), so it doesn’t take long for the open water to refreeze in those conditions. Polynyas freeze over very quickly, however, but a Polynya is what we look for when searching for a spot to surface.

‘Once Sonar has found a potentially good surfacing spot, the boat will hover (station-keeping maneuver), then slowly rise until the top of the sail (fairwater) is resting against the ice. After that, enough HP air is put into the ballast tanks to give the boat enough positive buoyancy to eventually break through the ice. Boats that still have Fairwater Dive Planes will have them manually rotated to a 90-degree Vertical position during hovering and before ascending. Failure to rotate and lock the Fairwater Planes in Vertical Configuration can result in the Planes being sheared off if the surfacing boat hits thick ice.’

Jones concludes;

‘Again, when we surfaced at the Pole in 1986, the ice was only a few inches thick; we’d found a huge Polynya, which was good because we were making the first 3-Submarine rendezvous at the Geographic North Pole in history. Given the 3 crews, we also set a record for the most people at the Pole as well. Here are some Official Navy photos taken from an ANG C-130 from Thule AFB, flown up with photographers.’

Photo by U.S. Navy via John Jones

‘I’m sure that he’s still telling the story of “something” hitting his boat, knocking him overboard, but then never appearing,’ James Mowrey, US Navy Nuclear Submarine Officer

Mention the word “submarine” to anyone, and a host of images will spring to mind. The sleek, low, black silhouette pier-side or sliding through the ocean. The drama of an “emergency blow” as the boat broaches the surface in a volcanic eruption of water. And of course, the sinister image of the tip of a periscope feathering the surface, hinting at what lies lurking below.

Specifically the periscope is the eye of the submarine. It was invented and developed solely for the purpose of providing a means to view the surface without fear of detection by surface craft.

Have submarines coming to periscope depth ever hit someone?

James Mowrey, former US Navy Nuclear Submarine Officer, recalls on Quora;

‘Funny story.

‘We were in the Philippines in the mid-1980s. I was in the Control Room, but a friend of mine was the OOD. We were coming to periscope depth, and as usual, waiting for the OOD to call out “No Close Contacts” prior to speaking again. Or “emergency deep”, whichever was appropriate. It was a beautiful day on the surface, and as the scope broke the surface, there was a muffled “bong” sound and the OOD was saying “Oh, s**t!”. He called out a rudder order to swing the back end of the boat out right then.

‘Turns out, the scope had hit a small one-man fishing boat (we called them bonka boats – not sure if that’s really the name), and the OOD had a low power view of the fisherman’s back as he fell overboard. The man swam back to the boat, grabbed the gunnels, and looking around a little scared and very confused, climbed back into the boat.’

Mowrey concludes;

‘I’m sure that he’s still telling the story of “something” hitting his boat, knocking him overboard, but then never appearing.’

Photo by Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Kevin H. Tierney / U.S. Navy and Stik boat

‘Doesn’t matter what weapons you carry, if you can’t turn the ship in time to attack or evade, you are dead,’ William Toti, former XO of USS Florida (SSBN-728)

The Ohio-class SSBN was conceived in the early 1970s and at 560 feet, they became the largest submarines ever built by the US Navy.

USS Ohio (SSGN 726, the first of her class of ballistic missile submarines [SSBNs] and guided missile submarines [SSGNs], and the fourth US Navy ship to bear the name) joined the US Navy on Nov. 11, 1981.

With the end of the Cold War, the first four Ohio-class SSBNs – Ohio, Michigan, Florida and Georgia – were scheduled to be decommissioned in the early 2000s. The other 14 would remain in service as SSBNs carrying the Trident II D-5 missile. But another plan was in the works – to use the versatile Ohio seaframe to carry Tomahawks or other payloads in lieu of ballistic missiles. The result would be four platforms capable of supporting strike or special warfare missions around the world.

Under then plan, 22 Trident launch tubes were reconfigured to carry either canisters containing seven Tomahawks each – for a total of up to 154 missiles – or special operations weapons or equipment. The other two launch tubes were converted to lockout chambers, allowing for the embarkation and deployment of special operations forces such as Navy SEALs.

Giving these unique features, the Ohio-class submarines provide the Navy with unprecedented strike and special operation mission capabilities.

But would it be possible using an Ohio-class SSBN as a hunter-killer?

William Toti, US Navy Captain, (retired), former commodore, former CO and former XO of an Ohio-class SSBN, explain on Quora;

‘Actual former XO of an Ohio class SSBN (USS Florida SSBN-728) then CO of a Los Angeles-class SSN (USS Indianapolis SSN-697), then commodore of an SSN squadron, answering. In other words, someone who has fought both classes of ship and knows what he is talking about.

‘Short answer: no.

‘Reason: maneuverability. Doesn’t matter what weapons you carry, if you can’t turn the ship in time to attack or evade, you are dead. Think of an F/A-18 engaged in a dogfight with a B-2. Even if the B-2 carried air-to-air missiles, it’s not gonna prevail.

‘I used to joke with my crew on the Trident: “Put the rudder over. I’m going to take a nap. Wake me up when we are on course.”’

Toti concludes;

‘On the Ohio-class we were required to conduct ASW missions as part of our Tactical Readiness Evaluation (TRE), but we all knew this was for self-defense only. No commodore or admiral in their right mind would send a Trident out to hunt/kill an SSN.’

Photo by Photographer’s Mate 2nd Class Lynn Friant / U.S. Navy

‘Apparently, the scope came up inside the box. Not so much a needle in a haystack, more like threading a needle in a haystack,’ John Hartzog, former US Navy Nuclear Submarine Officer

The periscope is the eye of the submarine. It was invented and developed solely for the purpose of providing a means to view the surface without fear of detection by surface craft.

Have submarines coming to periscope depth ever hit something?

John Hartzog, former US Navy Nuclear Submarine Officer, recalls on Quora;

‘While on patrol in the central Mediterranean on a fast attack one day in the early 90s, we were coming to periscope depth to get a satellite fix, get our radio traffic, etc. It was one of those rare days, when the water is flat as a pond, and no one else was within 20 miles. Sunny, gorgeous summer day. We made routine preparations for coming to, including clearing baffles. Once we start driving the ship up, the periscope is raised, and the Officer of the Deck [OOD] trains the scope upward, and starts scanning the underside of the surface, looking for “shapes and shadows”, while continually announcing, “no shapes or shadows.”

‘Just as we approached the depth where the scope is breaking the surface, he yells, “emergency deep” … this gets everyone’s pucker factor up quickly, as it implies, we were about to co-occupy a volume with something else, i.e, hit it. Now, sonar had not heard anything, but passive sonar has its limitations. A sail boat on sail without an engine or generator running is pretty much impossible to hear, for instance. Emergency deep results in the control room crew immediately and automatically bringing the sub to a safe-from-being-hit depth… rapidly.’

Hartzog concludes;

‘So, we get to our safe depth (simply deep enough to pass under the deepest draft ship in existence, with some margin). The OOD explains that the scope went black dark just as it broke the surface. We again clear baffles. Nothing heard. So, we circle around where we previously attempted to come to up, and finally try again. When we get there, a cardboard box is floating upside down. Apparently, the scope came up inside the box. Not so much a needle in a haystack, more like threading a needle in a haystack.’

Photo by Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Kevin H. Tierney / U.S. Navy

‘There are a number of reasons for it… First, because the procedure says it should be,’ David Kirk, former US Navy Submarine Officer

The periscope is the eye of the submarine. It was invented and developed solely for the purpose of providing a means to view the surface without fear of detection by surface craft.

Why is the periscope raised when submarines dive?

‘There are a number of reasons for it…,’ David Kirk, former US Navy Submarine Officer / Strike Warfare Officer, says on Quora.

‘First, because the procedure says it should be.

‘Now as to why?

• The Officer of the Deck (OOD) is required to continue a visual search of the horizon to ensure no enemy threat aircraft or surface ships detect them until they are submerged.
• The OOD needs to visually verify that the main ballast tanks (MBT) vents properly opened and are venting. If one fails the tank will not properly fill with water and it can affect reserve ballast and also affect further damage control efforts in several casualties. The OOD announces “Venting Forward” then looks aft and reports “Venting Aft”.
• By procedure, The OOD needs to report when the ‘decks are awash’ so the chief of the boat can close the MBT vents.
• By Procedure, the OOD needs to report when the scope’s under so the entire ship’s control party is aware and so the Chief of the Watch (COW) can lower any remaining masts or antennae that the OOD may have wanted raised… Having scope under means the Diving officer of the Watch (DOOW) can use a larger down angle to proceed to depth without fear of the screw coming out of the water.

He continues;

‘Submariners live and die by written procedures. They break them out before every evolution and use them as checklists. In a casualty they perform their immediate actions then breakout the procedures and audit their actions. The OOD does a reread of it before going on watch if he knows he/ she’s expecting to do some procedure – I read the dive or surface procedure before every almost every watch where I was expected to be involved even after years of doing it. The crew, when they’re poking holes in the ocean, before they talk about sports or liberty will break out procedures and train on them. Senior enlisted ensuring junior enlisted are aware of the reasons behind each step and teaching the many pitfalls that happen when procedures aren’t followed verbatim.

‘To give you some insight. If in the middle of doing an evolution you determine the procedure is flawed. You place the ship or the reactor into a safe condition. Stop the procedure, go back to the appropriate officers and chiefs to rewrite the procedure, then train on the procedure, and then attempt the procedure.

‘It sounds insane to most people but to a submariner it is the best way to ensure that a mistake doesn’t occur. Early in the submarine force for the US Navy… Sailors treated submarines like surface ships and relied on tribal knowledge, and the ‘all knowing’ senior NCO’s and often times ships sank next to the pier as things were forgotten or missed. It is much harder to, in procedural error sink a surface ship, because it is never intended to submerge.

‘Between 1905 and 1935 probably 20 or so ships were sunk and raised pier-side. Many times, the crew got off but a few times sailors or officers died. Which is why the submarine warfare patch and later pin was developed to identify those sailors who lived with that extra risk. It grew into a formal qualification program and became emulated by the aviators, spec warfare and eventually even the surface warfare community in the 1970’s.’

He concludes;

‘Procedures don’t replace common sense nor intuition but enhance it by ensuring you are not missing a simple step with grave consequences. Also, the Duty officer, the OOD (Officer of the Deck), the Engineering duty officer or EOOW (Engineering officer of the watch) are the stop gaps to ensure that procedures and contradictory procedures don’t result in damage or loss of life.’

Photo by Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Kevin H. Tierney / U.S. Navy